8th Assignment: Final Assignment of Topic in Applied Linguistics
Maulina Adzkiyah (2201409033 405-406)

A STUDY ON THE READING SKILLS OF

EFL UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

By:

Flora Debora Floris

Marsha Divina

Petra Christian University, Indonesia

SUMMARY

The study attempts to investigate kinds of reading skills that EFL (English as a Foreign Language) University students have difficulty with. For this purpose, two reading tests which covered seventeen kinds of reading skills were developed and administered to ten students of batch 2003 studying at an English Department of a private university in Surabaya, Indonesia. The analysis showed that each reading skill had different level of difficulty for the respondents.

Studies have shown that EFL students who read a lot seem to acquire English better than those who do not. They “do not only improve in their reading abilities, but also improve in using and increasing their English abilities and knowledge. Reading proficiency is determined by reading skills. According to Wassman and Rinsky (2000, p. 2, cited in Suparman, 2005, p. 141),

To understand all the printed materials in English, high reading proficiency is of paramount importance without which the information will not be comprehended. However, it takes an “effective reader” to make sense out of the print which EFL students are bombarded daily. Thus, becoming an effective reader means the reader has reading skills and knows how to use them effectively.

There are three majors categories or reading skills suggested by Nuttal (1996, pp. 44-124). They are:

1.      Efficient reading skills

2.      Word attack skills

3.      Text attack skills

Method

There are some steps used by the writers in doing the data collection. They are mentioned as follows:

1.      The first step was to analyze the kinds of reading skills.

2.      The second step was to develop two reading tests.

Steps:

a.       The writers adopted two reading texts for reading test one and other two reading texts for reading test two.

b.      They developed test items based on those reading texts.

3.      The third step was piloting the two reading tests.

4.      The next step of the data collection was to distribute the reading test to ten students of English Department Batch 2003 who had already passed all reading classes.

5.      The final step of the data collection was to check and count the results of both reading tests.

The followings are the step done by the writers to analyze the data:

1.      Analyze the results of each reading test.

2.      List seventeen kinds of reading skills which were tested in the reading tests.

3.      Calculate the percentage of incorrect answer for each reading skill.

Discussion

The most difficult reading skill for these students was recognizing text organization. The second most difficult reading skill was paraphrasing. However, it was found that in this study vocabulary skill was the third most difficult reading skill. Since there were only three wrong answers from the total respondents’ answers toward scanning skill’s items, it could be assumed that students did not have much difficulty with this skill. The other reading skills which had low difficulty level were improving reading speed and recognizing presupposition underlying the text.

Conclusion

From the study, it can be conclude that each reading skill had different level of difficulty for the respondents.

COMMENT

Reading, one of the four language skills, is actually skill that as important as the others. But in our environment reading skill is usually underestimated compared to the others such as speaking skill. This study has successfully showed us that there are some factors that may cause the low level of reading skill. There are seventeen reading skills that studied in the research. I think, this research has proved that each reading skill should be developed in order to improve reading ability of the respondents.

BENEFIT FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING

Since it was found in the study held by the writers that each reading skill had different level of difficulty it could be found that there are some benefits we got. For example, a teacher might take a look on this study to prepare the lesson plan on the topic of reading and to make it more understandable to students in order to achieve the objectives of the lesson. The teacher could adapt the findings from the study to decide which reading skills should get more attention than the others. Another benefit was that teacher could be informed that reading skill was actually not as simple as people thought. Many people did not know that actually there are seventeen skills under covered by reading skill. By this study, teacher could consider the proportion of improving reading skill so that none of the skills would be underestimated or even gone.

7th Assignment : Sex, politeness and stereotypes

This part of the book told us about styles and registers, the way language was used, and linguistic attitudes, the issue of ‘woman’s language’ was one which illustrated all those concepts. The first part of the chapter told us about Women’s language and confidence. An American linguist, Robin Lakoff, argued that women were using language which reinforced status; they were ‘colluding in their own subordination’ by the way they spoke. The example given showed that social dialect research focused on differences between women’s and men’s speech in the areas of pronunciation, and morphology, with some attention to syntactic constructions. According to her there are some linguistic features of ‘women’s language’:
a) Lexical hedges or fillers
b) Tag questions
c) Rising intonation on declaratives
d) Empty adjectives
e) Precise color terms
f) Intensifiers
g) ‘Hypercorrect’ grammar
h) ‘Superpolite’ forms
i) Avoidance of strong swear words
j) Emphatic stress.
Those ten features were unified by their function of expressing lack of confidence. The internal coherence of the features Lakkof identified could be illustrated by dividing them into two groups. First, there were linguistic devices which might be used for hedging or reducing the force of an utterance. Secondly, there were features which may boost or intensify a proposition’s force. She claimed women used hedging devices to express uncertainty, and they used intensifying devices to persuade their addressee to take them seriously. According to her, both hedges and boosters reflected women’s lack of confidence. But, even if those features were said to differ women’s language from men’s language, it was still difficult to know how to interpret such apparently arbitrary differences between them without a theoretical.
Second part of the chapter told us about Interaction. There were many features of interaction which differentiate the way women and men spoke. In this section of the chapter there were two features discussed. They were interrupting behavior and conversational feedback.
  Interruptions
In the same sex-interactions, interruptions were distributed between speakers. In cross-sex interactions almost all the interruptions were from male. It had been found that men interrupted others more than women do. Men interrupted more, challenged, disputed, and ignored more, tried to control what topics were discussed, and were inclined to make categorical statements. Women were evidently socialized from early childhood to expect to be interrupted. Consequently, they generally gave up the floor with little or no protest.
  Feedback
Another aspect of the picture of women as cooperative conversationalists was the evidence that women provided more encouraging feedback to their conversational partner than men did. Research on conversational interaction revealed women as cooperative conversationalists, whereas men tended to be more competitive and less supportive of others.
The differences between women and men in ways of interacting might be the result of different socialization and acculturation patterns.
Then, the chapter explained about Gossip. It was described Gossip as the kind of relaxed in-group talk that went on between people in informal contexts. Its overall function for women was to affirm solidarity and maintain the social relationships between the women involved. It focused on personal experiences and relationships also personal problems and feelings.
The last part explained was Sexist language. It was concerned with the way language expressed both negative and positive stereotypes of both women and men. However, in reality, it was more concerned with language conveyed negative attitudes to women. It was said that based on linguistic data supports the view that women were often assigned subordinate status by virtue of their gender alone and treated linguistically as subordinate, regardless of their actual power or social status in a particular context.
The relative status of the sexes in a society may be reflected not only in the ways in which women and men use language, but also in the language used about women and men.

6th Assignment

CODE SWITCHING

Definition

In 1977, Carol Myers-Scotton and William Ury identified code-switching as the “use of two or more linguistic varieties in the same conversation or interaction”. Richard Nordquist stated that code-switching is the practice of moving back and forth between two languages or between two dialects or registers of the same language. In linguistics, code-switching is the concurrent use of more than one language, or language variety in conversation. Multilingual-people who speak more than one language-sometimes use elements of multiple languages in conversing with each other. Thus, code-switching is the use of more than one linguistics variety in manner consistent with syntax and phonology of each variety. In other simple words code-switching of speakers of more than two languages can be defined as method of mixing their language during communication. This phenomenon occurs when bilinguals substitute a word or phrase from one language with a phrase or word from another language.

Types

The followings are some types of code-switching:

1.      Inter-sentential switching occurs outside the sentence or the clause level (i.e. at sentence or clause boundaries). It is sometimes called “extra-sentential” switching.

2.      Intra-sentential switching occurs within a sentence or a clause.

3.      Tag-switching is the switching of either a tag phrase or a word, or both, from language-B to language-A, (common intra-sentential switches).

4.      Intra-word switching occurs within a word, itself, such as at a morpheme boundary.

Functions

Code-switching has been viewed as a strategy to compensate for diminished language proficiency. The premise behind this theory is that bilingual’s code-switch because they do not know either language completely. So the function of code-switching is to make the recipient or hearer understand the idea of what the speaker is speaking. This argument is also known as semi-lingualism, which underscores the notion that bilinguals “almost” speak both languages correctly.

Some scholars of literature use the term to describe literary styles which include elements from more than one language, as in novels by Chinese-American, Anglo-Indian, or Latino writers. In popular usage code-switching is sometimes used to refer to relatively stable informal mixtures of two languages such as Spanglish or Franponais. Both in popular usage and in sociolinguistic scholarship, the name code-switching is sometimes used to refer to switching among dialects, style or registers, such as that practiced by speakers of African American Vernacular English as they move from less formal to more formal settings.

For example:

      I want motorcycle verde.

In this sentence, the English word “green” is replaced with its Spanish equivalent.

      You could ask papi and mami to see if you could come down.

In this sentence, the English word “father and mother” are replaced with their Spanish equivalent.

References

Heredia, Roberto R. Brown, Jeffrey M.____. Code Switching. Texas A & M International University. Downloaded at http://www.tamiu.edu/~rheredia/switch.htm (Tuesday, May 7, 2012).

Wikipedia. Code-switching. Downloaded at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-switching (Tuesday, May 7, 2012).

Nordquist, Richard.____. Code switching. Downloaded at http://grammar.about.com/od/c/g/codeswitchingterm.htm (Tuesday, May 7, 2012).

Coffey, Heather.____. Code Switching. Downloaded at http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/4558 (Tuesday, May 7, 2012).

5th Assignment of Topic in Applied Linguistics

Maulina Adzkiyah

2201409033

TiAL Study Group 405-406

Systemic-Functional Linguistics

Definition

Systemic-Functional Linguistics can be defined as the relationship between language and its functions in social settings. In systemic-functional linguistics (SFL), three strata make up the linguistic system: meaning (semantics), sound (phonology), and wording or lexicogrammar (syntax, morphology, and lexis). SFL treats grammar as meaning-making resource and insists on the interrelation of form and meaning.

In other words, SFL is a theory of language centered on the notion of language function. SFL accounts for the syntactic structure of language. Its function of language as central (what language does, and how it does it), in preference to more structural approaches, which place the elements of language and their combination as central. SFL starts at social context, and looks at how language both acts upon, and is constrained by, this social context.

Theory

Halliday (1985) wrote in “The value of a theory” that “lies in the use that can be made of it, and I have always considered a theory of language to be essentially consumer oriented”. This perspective from the major figure of Systemic-Functional linguistics is refreshing to applied linguists who grew up on a diet of linguist oriented structural transformations. It can be said that Systemic-Functional (SF) theory views language as a social semiotic a resource people use to accomplish their purpose by expressing meanings in context.

According to Halliday (1975), language has developed in response to three kinds of social-functional 'needs.' The first is to be able to construe experience in terms of what is going on around us and inside us. The second is to interact with the social world by negotiating social roles and attitudes. The third and final need is to be able to create messages with which we can package our meanings in terms of what is New or Given, and in terms of what the starting point for our message is, commonly referred to as the Theme. Halliday (1978) calls these language functions metafunctions, and refers to them as ideational, interpersonal and textual respectively.

History of systemic

SFL grew out of the work of JR Firth, a British linguist of the 30s, 40s, and 50s, but was mainly developed by his student MAK Halliday. He developed the theory in the early sixties (seminal paper, Halliday 1961), based in England, and moved to Australia in the Seventies, establishing the department of linguistics at the University of Sydney. Through his teaching there, SFL has spread to a number of institutions throughout Australia, and around the world. Australian Systemics is especially influential in areas of language education.

Child language development

Some of Halliday's early work involved the study of his son's developing language abilities. This study in fact has had a substantial influence on the present systemic model of adult language, particularly in regard to the metafunctions. This work has been followed by other child language development work, especially that of Clare Painter. Ruqaia Hasan has also performed studies of interactions between children and mothers.

Systemic and computation

SFL has been prominent in computational linguistics, especially in Natural Language Generation (NLG). Penman, an NLG system started at Information Sciences Institute in 1980, is one of the three main such systems, and has influenced much of the work in the field. John Bateman (currently in Bremen, Germany) has extended this system into a multilingual text generator, KPML. Robin Fawcett in Cardiff have developed another systemic generator, called Genesys. Mick O'Donnell has developed yet another system, called WAG. Numerous other systems have been built using Systemic grammar, either in whole or in part.

Levels of social context

1.      Field of discourse

2.      Language bridges from the cultural meanings of social context

3.      Semantics

4.      Lexicogrammar

5.      Ideational meaning

6.      Interpersonal meaning

7.      Textual meaning

4th Assignment of Topics in Applied Linguistics: DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Maulina Adzkiyah (2201409033/ 405-406)

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Definition of DA

Is it text or discourse analysis? It is not easy to define them actually. In everyday popular use, it might be said that the term text is restricted to written language, while discourse is restricted to spoken language. However, modern Linguistics has introduces a concept of text that includes every type of utterance; therefore, a text may be a magazine article, a television interview, a conversation or a cooking recipe. According to De Beaugrande and Dressler (1981) text and communicative event must satisfy its seven criteria. They are Cohesion, Coherence, Intentionality, Acceptability, Informativity, Situationality, and Intertextuality.

Originally, the word “discourse’ comes from Latin “discursus” which denoted “conversation, speech”. Here are some definitions about Discourse Analysis (DA):

1.      Discourse analysis can be characterized as a way of approaching and thinking about a problem.

2.      Discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, is a general term for a number of approaches to analyzing written, spoken, signed language use or any significant semiotic event.

3.      Discourse analysis is a qualitative method that has been adopted and developed by social constructionists. Although discourse analysis can and is used by a handful of cognitive psychologists, it is based on a view that is largely anti-scientific, though not anti-research.

4.      Slembrouck points out the ambiguity of the term discourse analysis and provides another broad definition:

The term discourse analysis is very ambiguous. I will use it in this book to refer mainly to the linguistic analysis of naturally occurring connected speech or written discourse. Roughly speaking, it refers to attempts to study the organisation of language above the sentence or above the clause, and therefore to study larger linguistic units, such as conversational exchanges or written texts. It follows that discourse analysis is also concerned with language use in social contexts, and in particular with interaction or dialogue between speakers. (2005:1)

Uses of DA

The contribution of the postmodern Discourse Analysis is the application of critical thought to social situations and the unveiling of hidden (or not so hidden) politics within the socially dominant as well as all other discourses (interpretations of the world, belief systems, etc.). Discourse Analysis can be applied to any text, that is, to any problem or situation. Since Discourse Analysis is basically and interpretative and deconstructing reading, there are no specific guidelines to follow. But, all purpose of DA is not to provide definite answers, but to expand our personal horizons and make us realize our own shortcomings and unacknowledged agendas/ motivations – as well as that of others.

Types of DA

There are numerous "types" or theories of Discourse Analysis. Jacques Derrida's "Deconstruction" would be one; so would Michel Foucault's Genealogy and social criticism and analysis of the uses of discourse to exercise power (such as his analysis of how "Knowledge" is created in our societies and with what purpose or effect).

Approaches to DA

a.      Speech Act Theory

It is a logico-philosophic perspective on conversational organization focusing on interpretation rather than the production of utterances in discourse.

b.      Interactional Sociolinguistics

It centrally concerned with the importance of context in the production and interpretation of discourse.

c.       Ethnography of Communication

The ethnographic framework has led to broader notions of communicative competence.

d.      Pragmatics

It formulates conversational behavior in terms of general “principles” rather than rules.

It also provides means of characterizing different varieties of conversation, e.g. in interactions, one can deliberately try to provocative or consensual.

e.       Conversational Analysis

CA is a branch of ethnomethodology.  Garfinkel (sociologist) concern: to understand how social members make sense of everyday life.

f.       Variation Analysis

Labov & Waletzky (1967) argue that fundamental narrative structures are evident in spoken narratives of personal experience.

g.      SFL

Issues of Reliability and Validity

Discourse or Critical Analysis always remains a matter of interpretation. As there is no hard data provided through discourse analysis, the reliability and the validity of one's research/findings depends on the force and logic of one's arguments. Even the best constructed arguments are subject to their own deconstructive reading and counter-interpretations. The validity of critical analysis is, therefore, dependent on the quality of the rhetoric. Despite this fact, well-founded arguments remain authoritative over time and have concrete applications.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Discourse Analysis and critical thinking is applicable to every situation and every subject. The new perspective provided by discourse analysis allows personal growth and a high level of creative fulfillment. No technology or funds are necessary and authoritative discourse analysis can lead to fundamental changes in the practices of an institution, the profession, and society as a whole. However, Discourse Analysis does not provide definite answers; it is not a "hard" science, but an insight/knowledge based on continuous debate and argumentation.

References

Alba, Laura – Juez. 2009. Perspective on Discourse Analysis: Theory and Practice. UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

Fulcher, Eamon. 2012. What is Discourse Analysis? Downloaded at http://www.eamonfulcher.com/discourse_analysis.html (April 18, 2012)

_____.____. Discourse Analysis. Downloaded at http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/discourse.htm (April 18, 2012)

_____. 2012. Discourse Analysis. Downloaded at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse_analysis (April 18, 2012)

Wisniewski, Kamil. 2006. Discourse Analysis. Downloaded at http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/discourse.htm (April 18, 2012)

3rd Assignment of Topics in Applied Linguistics: COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

Maulina Adzkiyah

2201409033

Study Group 405-406

Communicative Competence

Communicative competence can be defined as the capacity of being able to use the language for meaningful communication. The idea of communicative competence was given by Dell Hymes (1972). His original idea was that speakers of a language have to have more than grammatical competence in order to be able to communicative effectively in a language; they also need to know how language is used by members of a speech community to accomplish their purposes.

Communicative competence has four types according to Hymes. They are:

a.       What is formally possible

b.      What is feasible

c.       What is social meaning or value of a given utterance

d.      What actually occur

Canale and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence in the context of second language teaching. Their view of communicative competence is: “a synthesis of knowledge of basic grammatical principles, knowledge of how language is used in social setting to perform communicative functions, and knowledge of how utterance and communicative functions can be combined according to principles of discourse”.

 There are some language knowledge aspects including in the communicative competence. They are described as follows:

1.      Knowing how to use language for a range of different purposes and functions.

2.      Knowing how to vary our use of language according to the setting and the participants (e.g. knowing when to use formal or informal speech or when to use language appropriately for written as opposed to spoken communication).

3.      Knowing how to produce and understand different types of texts (e.g. narratives, reports, interviews, conversations).

4.      Knowing how to maintain communication despite having limitations in one’s language knowledge (e.g. through using different kinds of communication strategies).

Compared to grammatical competence that focuses on text construction, communicative competence can be said as the realization of the capacity of grammatical competence. It is where the communicative competence used in the field of real communication through either spoken or written.

References

_____. 1998. Aspects of Communicative Competence. Downloaded at http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/languagelearning/otherresources/gudlnsfralnggandcltrlrnngprgrm/AspectsOfCommunicativeCompeten.htm (April 11, 2012)

Yano, Yasukata. Communicative Competence and English as an International Language. Waseda University

_____. Historical Overview of the Development of the Notion of “Communicative Competence”. Downloaded at http://www.ne.jp/asahi/kurazumi/peon/ccmodel.html (April 11, 2012)

Richard, Jack C. Communicative Language Teaching Today. Downloaded at http://www.professorjackrichards.com/pdfs/communicative-language-teaching-today-v2.pdf (March 29, 2012)

2nd Assignment: Historical Background of English Language Teaching

Maulina Adzkiyah

2201409033

TiAL Study Group 405-406

2^nd Assignment

Historical Background of English Language Teaching

The globalization which is increasing has created a large need for people in the world either in the work world or education world who can communicate in multiple languages. The uses of common languages are in such area of business, technology, media, science, tourism, and many others. As one of the international languages, English has its own popularity to be learnt by people around the world. For such of those reasons, learning English either as a second language or foreign become more important to be done. So, let’s take a look first on the historical background of English Language Teaching.

Language teaching in the last 50 years is divided into three phases. They are traditional approaches (up to the late 1960s), classic communicative language teaching (1970s to 1990s), and current communicative language teaching (late 1990s to the present). Let’s see the explanation of those three phases one by one.

·         Traditional Approaches (up to late 1960s)

Latin which was believed to develop intellectual abilities was the popular language in Europe in the 16^th century. The main objectives of learning this language were to understand the classical text, grammar of Latin and translation. By the time went on, Latin was disappeared from a spoken language. This was the opportunity for English to reach its popularity. But, the problem was that English was taught using the same way as Latin. Grammar Translation Method was the method used in this phase. The teaching was focused on the grammar of English. Instead of inductive approach, deductive approach was used to teach grammar. That was by presenting the students with the grammar rule and then let them practice using it. The more surprising one was the belief that grammar could be learnt through direct instruction and a methodology that made much use in repetitive practice and drilling.

Memorization of the words was very important. The techniques used in teaching activity were memorization of dialogue, question and answer practice, substitution drills, and various forms of guided speaking and writing practice. It was assumed that students’ errors would quickly become a permanent part of the learner’s speech so a great attention to accurate pronunciation and grammar was stressed from the beginning stages of language learning.

The methodologies include:

1.      Audiolingualism (in North America) (also known as the Aural - Oral Method)

2.      The Structural-Situaltional Approach in the UK (also known as Situational Language Teaching)

Procedures observed in audio lingual lesson.

a.       Students first hear a model dialogue.

b.      The dialogue is adapted into students’ interest or situation through changing certain keywords or phrases.

c.       Drills are done based on certain key structures.

d.      Students may refer to their textbook.

e.       Follow-up activities.

3.      P-P-P (Presentation – Practice - Production) Methodology.

Grammar – based methodologies such as P-P-P, under the influence of CLT theory, have given way to functional and skill – based teaching, and accuracy activities such as drill and grammar practice have been replaced by fluency activities based on interactive small – group work. This led to the emergence of a ‘fluency-first’ pedagogy (Brumfit 1984) in which students’ grammar needs are determined on the basis of performance on fluency tasks rather than predetermined by a grammatical syllabus.

·         Classic Communicative Language Teaching (1970s to 1990s)

The Audiolingualism and Structural – Situational Approach were out of date in the 1970s. But then the reaction to traditional language approaches began and soon spread around the world. Using language to communicate communicatively was actually the main purpose of learning a second or foreign language. So, what was needed to reach gain this purpose was communicative competence. This was a broader concept that that of grammatical competence included what to say and how to say it appropriately based on the situation, the participants and their roles and intentions. The notion of communicative competence was developed within the discipline of linguistics (or more accurately, the sub-discipline of sociolinguistics).

The idea of CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) created a great deal of enthusiasm and excitement when it first appeared. This idea had some principles such as language was for expression of meaning and its primary function was interaction and communication. By this idea, language teaching started to be different since teachers begin to rethink their teaching method, syllabus, and material learning. There are some aspects that should be identified by the syllabus so that communicative competence could be developed. These are the aspects:

1.      Purpose

2.      Setting

3.      Role

4.      Communicative events

5.      Language functions

6.      Notions

7.      Discourse and rhetorical skills

8.      Variety

9.      Grammatical content

10.  Lexical content

These are the two important directions in the 1970s and 1980s proposals for a communicative syllabus, and the ESP movement.

a.      Proposals for a communicative syllabus.

ü  A skills-based syllabus: this focuses on the four skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing, and breaks each skill down into its component micro skills.

ü  A functional syllabus: this is organized according to the functions the learner should be able to carry out in English.

b.      English for Specific Purposes (ESP)

Many learners needed English in order to use it in specific occupational or educational settings. It would be more efficient if they were taught using certain or specific kinds of language and communicative skills that were different with the usual one. The differences might include differences in vocabulary choice, grammar, kinds of texts commonly occurring, functions, and the need for particular skills.

Implications for methodology

The new communicative approach to teaching prompted a rethinking of classroom teaching methodology. There were arguments that learners learn a language through the process of communication in it, and that communication is meaningful to the learner provides a better opportunity for learning than through a grammar – based approach.

These were the important principles of CLT at that time:

1.      Real communication as the focus of learning

2.      Provide opportunities to experiment and trying out

3.      Tolerance on learners’ errors

4.      Link four language skills together

5.      Let students induce discover grammar rules

If we want to apply those principles, new classroom techniques and activities were needed.

REFERENCES

Kesuma, Barlin. 2011. A Brief History of English Language Teaching. Downloaded at http://englishteachingmethod.blogspot.com/2011/02/brief-history-of-english-language.html (March 29, 2012).

Wikipedia. Language Education. Downloaded at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_education (March 29, 2012)

Richard, Jack C. Communicative Language Teaching Today. Downloaded at http://www.professorjackrichards.com/pdfs/communicative-language-teaching-today-v2.pdf (March 29, 2012)